Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Small-Scale Irrigation

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2nd stakeholder dialogue meeting report - Ghana
(Feed the Future, 2020) Minh, Thai Thi; Schmitter, Petra; Cofie, Olufunke; IWMI; ILSSI; USAID
Advances in water resources research in the Upper Blue Nile basin and the way forward: A review
(Journal of Hydrology, 2018) Dile, Yihun Taddele; Tekleab, Sirak; Ayana, Essayas K.; Gebrehiwot, Solomon G.; Worqlul, Abeyou W.; Bayabil, Haimanote K.; Yimam, Yohannes T.; Tilahun, Seifu A.; Daggupati, Prasad; Karlberg, Louise; Srinivasan, Raghavan; Elsevier
The Upper Blue Nile basin is considered as the lifeline for ∼250 million people and contributes ∼50 Gm3/year of water to the Nile River. Poor land management practices in the Ethiopian highlands have caused a significant amount of soil erosion, thereby threatening the productivity of the Ethiopian agricultural system, degrading the health of the aquatic ecosystem, and shortening the life of downstream reservoirs. The Upper Blue Nile basin, because of limited research and availability of data, has been considered as the “great unknown.” In the recent past, however, more research has been published. Nonetheless, there is no state-of-the-art review that presents research achievements, gaps and future directions. Hence, this paper aims to bridge this gap by reviewing the advances in water resources research in the basin while highlighting research needs and future directions. We report that there have been several research projects that try to understand the biogeochemical processes by collecting information on runoff, groundwater recharge, sediment transport, and tracers. Different types of hydrological models have been applied. Most of the earlier research used simple conceptual and statistical approaches for trend analysis and water balance estimations, mainly using rainfall and evapotranspiration data. More recent research has been using advanced semi-physically/physically based distributed hydrological models using high-resolution temporal and spatial data for diverse applications. We identified several research gaps and provided recommendations to address them. While we have witnessed advances in water resources research in the basin, we also foresee opportunities for further advancement. Incorporating the research findings into policy and practice will significantly benefit the development and transformation agenda of the Ethiopian government.
Agricultural Technology Assessment for Smallholder Farms in Developing Countries: An Analysis using a Farm Simulation Model (FARMSIM)
(Feed the Future, 2017) Bizmana, Jean-Claude; Richardson, James W.; USAID; The Borlaug Institute; Texas A&M AgriLife Research; Texas A&M University System; IFPRI; IWMI; ILRI; North Carolina A&T State University
The rural population in developing countries depends on agriculture. However, in many of these countries, agricultural productivity remains low with episodes of famines in drought-prone areas. One of the options to increase agricultural productivity is through adoption and use of improved agricultural technologies and management systems. Being a relatively high risk business due to factors related to production, marketing and finance, agriculture requires to devise risk mitigating strategies. Several models used to evaluate the adoption of agricultural technologies focus mainly on assessing the ex-post impact of technology without necessarily quantifying the profit and risk associated with the adoption of technologies. This paper introduces a farm simulation model (FARMSIM) that attempts to evaluate the potential economic and nutritional impacts of new agricultural technologies before they are adopted (ex-ante). FARMSIM is a Monte Carlo simulation model that simultaneously evaluates a baseline and an alternative farming technology. In this study, the model is used to analyze the impact of adoption of small scale irrigation technologies and fertilizers on the farm income and nutrition of smallholder farmers in Robit kebele, Amhara region of Ethiopia. The farming technologies under study comprise water lifting technologies (pulley and tank, rope and washer pump, gasoline/diesel motor pump and a solar pump) and use of fertilizers. The key output variables (KOVs) are the probability of positive annual net cash income and ending cash reserves, probability of positive net present value and a benefit cost ratio greater than one. For nutrition, the KOVs relate to the probability of consumption exceeding average daily minimum requirements of an adult for calories, protein, fat, calcium, iron, and vitamin A. The application of recommended fertilizers on grain and vegetable crops, alongside the use of irrigation to grow vegetables and fodder using a motor pump had the highest net present value compared to other scenarios. Similar results were observed for the net cash farm income and the ending cash reserves. However, the most feasible and profitable scenario is the one under the pulley system which had the highest benefit cost ratio. Solar pump system had the lowest benefit cost ratio due most likely to high initial investment cost. As for the nutrition, the simulation results show an increase in quantities available to the farm family of all nutrition variables under all alternative scenarios. However, the daily minimum requirements per adult equivalent were met only for calories, proteins, iron and vitamin A but deficiencies were observed for fat and calcium.
Agricultural Water Management for Sustainable Intensification of Smallholder Farms
(Feed the Future, 2018) Glover, Jerry; USAID
Role of Irrigation in African Smallholder Farming Systems
Agro-Climatic and hydrological characterization of selected watersheds of northern Ghana. IWMI Working Paper 173. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI.
(IWMI, 2017) Kadyampakeni, Davie M.; Obuobie, E.; Mul, Marloes; Appoh, Richard; Owusu, Afua; Ghansah, Benjamin; Boakye-Acheampong, Enoch; Barron, Jennie
This paper provides the climatic and biophysical context of three watersheds in northern Ghana. The objective of the study is to describe the agro-climatic and hydrological features of the watersheds from a landscape perspective. The analyses show that water surplus occurs about 3 months in a year, with only one month providing a significant surplus. Small-scale irrigation is, therefore, carried out in the dry months between November and June. The quality of water used for irrigation from wells, reservoirs and rivers is good for irrigation and domestic purposes. The soil chemical parameters across the study sites show that the soils are suitable for irrigation and crop system intensification, although it requires substantial fertilizer inputs. The paper concludes that there are opportunities from both a soil quality and water availability perspective to enhance sustainable intensification through small- and medium-scale irrigation in the selected watersheds.
Analysis of Farmers’ Willingness to Pay and the Feasibility of Household Irrigation Technologies
(Feed the Future, 2018) Gebregziabher, Gebrehaweria; Hagos, Fitsum; Lefore, Nicole; Haileslassie, Amare; IWMI; USAID; The Borlaug Institute; TAMU AgriLife Research; TAMU System; IFPRI; ILRI; North Carolina A&T State University; ILSSI
Annex to Mid-Term Report, 2014-2016 June 2017
(Feed the Future ILSSI, 2017) Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture; IFPRI; ILRI; IWMI; NCA&T; Texas A&M AgriLife Research
Annual Report October 1, 2015 – September 30, 2016
(Feed the Future ILSSI, 2016) USAID; The Borlaug Institute; Texas A&M AgriLife Research; Texas A&M University System; IFPRI; IWMI; ILRI; North Carolina A&T State University
APEX-MODFLOW: A New integrated model to simulate hydrological processes in watershed systems
(Environmental Modelling & Software, 2021) Bailey, R. T.; Tasdighi, A.; Park, S.; Tavakoli-Kivi, S.; Abitew, T.; Jeong, J.; Green, C. H. M.; Worqlul, A. W.; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University, USA; Blackland Extension and Research Center, Texas A&M AgriLife, USA; US Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, USA; INTERA Incorporated, 3838 W. Carson Street, #380, Torrance, CA, 90503, USA
APEX (Agricultural Policy/Environmental eXtender) is an oft-used agroecosystem model but has limited use in groundwater-driven watersheds due to a simplistic representation of groundwater processes. This paper presents the linkage of APEX and the groundwater flow model MODFLOW into a single modeling code. The mapping of recharge, groundwater head, and groundwater-surface water interactions are handled internally via subroutines. The APEX-MODFLOW model is applied to three watersheds in the United States for testing code accuracy and hydrologic state variables and fluxes: the Animas River Watershed, Colorado and New Mexico (3543 km2); the Price River Watershed, Utah (4886 km2); and the Middle Bosque River Watershed, Texas (470 km2). Whereas the hydrology of the Animas River and Price River watersheds is driven by snowmelt and spring runoff, the hydrology of the Middle Bosque River Watershed is driven by summer thunderstorms. The model can be used for scenario analysis in groundwater-driven watersheds.
Assessing Irrigation Potential and Land Suitability in Ethiopia
(Texas A&M AgriLife Research, [2019?]) Worqlul, Abeyou W.; Osorio, Javier; Jeong, Jaehak; Gerik, Thomas; Dile, Yihun T.; Srinivasan, Raghavan; Clark, Neville; Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture, TAMU, IDSS, ILSSI
Assessing Potential Land Suitability for Surface Irrigation using Groundwater in Ethiopia
([2016?]) Worqlul, A. W.; Osorio, J.; Jeong, J.; Gerik, T.; Dile, Y. T.; Srinivasan, R.; Clarke, N.; Norman Borlaug Institute for International Agriculture; TAMU; IDSS; ILSSI
Assessing potential land suitable for surface irrigation using groundwater in Ethiopia
(Applied Geography, 2017) Worqlul, Abeyou W.; Jeong, Jaehak; Dile, Yihun T.; Osorio, Javier; Schmitter, Petra; Gerik, Thomas; Srinivasan, R.; Clark, Neville; Elsevier
Although Ethiopia has abundant land for irrigation, only a fraction of its potential land is being utilized.This study evaluates suitability of lands for irrigation using groundwater in Ethiopia using GIS-basedMulti-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) techniques in order to enhance the country's agricultural industry.Key factors that significantly affect irrigation suitability evaluated in this study include physical landfeatures (land use, soil, and slope), climate (rainfall and evapotranspiration), and market access (proximity to roads and access to market). These factors were weighted using a pair-wise comparison matrix,then reclassified and overlaid to identify suitable areas for groundwater irrigation using a 1-km grid.Groundwater data from the British Geological Survey were used to estimate the groundwater potential,which indicates the corresponding irrigation potential for major crops. Results indicated that more than6 million ha of land are suitable for irrigation in Ethiopia. A large portion of the irrigable land is located inthe Abbay, Rift Valley, Omo Ghibe, and Awash River basins. These basins have access to shallowgroundwater (i.e., depth of groundwater less than 20 m from the surface) making it easier to extract. Thecomparison between available groundwater and total crop water requirements indicate that groundwater alone may not be sufficient to supply all suitable land. The study estimates that only 8% of thesuitable land can be irrigated with the available shallow groundwater. However, groundwater is a viableoption for supplementing surface water resources for irrigation in several basins in the country
Assessment of smallholder farmers’ demand for and adoption constraints to small-scale irrigation technologies: Evidence from Ethiopia
(Agricultural Water Management, 2021) Tesfaye, M. Z.; Balana, B. B.; Bizimana, J.-C.; Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia; University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Lombardy, Italy; International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Abuja, Nigeria; Texas A&M University, College Station, Department of Agricultural Economics, TX, USA
Increasing agricultural productivity through irrigation technologies is recognized as an effective way to improve smallholders’ livelihoods and food security in developing countries. However, most smallholder farmers do not have access to irrigation technologies. Using a double-bounded contingent valuation survey data from smallholders in Ethiopia and probit and bivariate probit models, this paper analyzes smallholder farmers’ demand for agricultural water lifting technologies (WLTs) and the factors affecting the demand for these technologies. Assessment of farmers’ preferences among three water lifting technologies available in local markets (motorized pump, rope and washer and pulley) show that farmers prefer motorized pumps to pulley or rope and washer technologies. Use of motorized pumps is more efficient and save labour than pulley or rope and washer technologies. However, results show that smallholders are constrained by inadequate access to financing options to adopt more efficient and labour-saving water lifting technology and hence operate below the production possibility frontier. Enhanced access to finance could help ease this constraint and allow smallholders to acquire more efficient irrigation technologies, enhance adoption and improve productivity. With a growing population pressure and land fragmentation in rural Ethiopia, the livelihoods of smallholders depend mainly on the meagre land endowment they possess. Increasing the productivity of land using yield enhancing technologies, particularly multiple cropping per year via small-scale irrigation is key to improve their livelihoods. Targeted interventions are thus warranted to mitigate the key adoption constraints such as improving access to credit and technical know-how of smallholders.
Assessment of Suitable Areas for Home Gardens for Irrigation Potential, Water Availability, and Water-Lifting Technologies
(Water, 2018) Assefa, Tewodros; Jha, Manoj; Reyes, Manuel; Srinivasan, Raghavan; Worqlul, Abeyou W.; MDPI
The study was conducted in Lake Tana Basin of Ethiopia to assess potentially irrigable areas for home gardens, water availability, and feasibility of water-lifting technologies. A GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) technique was applied to access the potential of surface and groundwater sources for irrigation. The factors affecting irrigation practice were identified and feasibility of water-lifting technologies was evaluated. Pairwise method and expert’s opinion were used to assign weights for each factor. The result showed that about 345,000 ha and 135,000 ha of land were found suitable for irrigation from the surface and groundwater sources, respectively. The rivers could address about 1–1.2% of the irrigable land during dry season without water storage structure whereas groundwater could address about 2.2–2.4% of the irrigable land, both using conventional irrigation techniques. If the seven major dams within the basin were considered, surface water potential would be increased and satisfy about 21% of the irrigable land. If rainwater harvesting techniques were used, about 76% of the basin would be suitable for irrigation. The potential of surface and groundwater was evaluated with respect to water requirements of dominant crops in the region. On the other hand, rope pump and deep well piston hand pump were found with relatively the most (26%) and the least (9%) applicable low-cost water-lifting technologies in the basin.
Berken plow and intercropping with pigeon pea ameliorate degraded soils with a hardpan in the Ethiopian highlands
(Geoderma, 2021) Fenta, H. M.; Hussein, M. A.; Tilahun, S. A.; Nakawuka, P.; Steenhuis, T. S.; Barron, J.; Adie, A.; Blummel, M.; Schmitter, P.; Faculty of Civil and Water Resource Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia; International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA; International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka; International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Closing the yield gap and enhancing efficiency in rainfed maize production systems in Ethiopia requires urgent action in increasing the productivity of degraded agricultural land. The degradation of land through continuous compaction and decline in the organic matter has resulted in a wide-spread formation of a hardpan that restricts deep percolation, prevents plant root development, and, ultimately can lead to increased erosion. Studies exploring practical low-cost solutions to break the hardpan are limited in Ethiopia. The main objective was to evaluate soil mechanical (i.e. modified plow or Berken plow) or biological intervention (i.e. intercropping with pigeon pea) effectiveness to enhance soil water management and crop yield of rainfed maize systems whilst reducing soil erosion and runoff. Five farm fields, each including four plots with different tillage treatments, were monitored during two rainy seasons in 2016 and 2017. The treatments were: (i) farmers practice under conventional (CT) tillage; plots tilled three times using an oxen driven local plow Maresha, (ii) no-till (NT), (iii) Berken tillage (BT), plots tilled three times using an oxen pulled Berken plow, and (iv) biological (CT + Bio), tap-rooted pigeon pea intercropped with maize on plots conventionally tilled. Results showed that mean tillage depth was significantly deeper in the BT (28 cm) treatment compared to CT and CT + Bio (18 cm) treatments. Measured soil penetration resistance significantly decreased up to 40 cm depth under BT and maize roots reached 1.5 times deeper compared to roots measured in the CT treatment. Under BT, the estimated water storage in the root zone was estimated at 556 mm, 1.86 times higher compared to CT, 3.11 times higher compared to NT and 0.89 times higher compared to CT + Bio. The positive effects on increased water storage and root development resulted in an average increase in maize grain (i.e. 15%, 0.95 t ha−1) and residual above ground biomass (0.3%, 6.4 t ha−1) leading to a positive net benefit of 138 USD ha−1 for the BT treatment compared to the CT treatment. The negative net benefit obtained under CT and CT+Bio was mainly related to the high labor cost related to plowing, weeding, planting, and fertilizer application whilst in the NT this was related to the significantly lower maize yields. The positive effects in the BT treatment, and to some extent the CT+Bio treatment show great potential for smallholder rainfed maize systems where degraded soils with hardpans and high variability in rainfall prevail.
Beyond the drinking glass: expanding our understanding of water-nutrition linkages
(Feild Exchange, 2017) Mekonnen, D. K.
Water access and management play central roles in determining nutritional outcomes. Water-for-nutrition is most often approached from a WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) perspective, where the aim is to improve water quality and practices for domestic water supply, thus reducing the burden of water-related diseases in a population. A WASH focus for improving nutritional outcomes is especially pertinent, given recent evidence highlighting the role of diarrhoeal disease and environmental enteropathy in determining child stunting. However, there are a number of water-nutrition pathways in addition to WASH that would benefit from greater attention in research and discussion. A session aimed at expanding our understanding of water-nutrition linkages was organised during the 2016 Stockholm World Water Week (26 August to 5 September, 2016). The session was organised by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in collaboration with the Center for Development Research (ZEF) at the University of Bonn, USAID, and Texas A&M University.
Beyond the drinking glass: Expanding our understanding of water-nutrition linkages. Field Exchange 54(February 2017).
(2017) Mekonnen, D.K.; IFPRI
Water access and management play central roles in determining nutritional outcomes. Water-for-nutrition is most often approached from a WASH (water, sanitation and hygiene) perspective, where the aim is to improve water quality and practices for domestic water supply, thus reducing the burden of water-related diseases in a population. A WASH focus for improving nutritional outcomes is especially pertinent, given recent evidence highlighting the role of diarrhoeal disease and environmental enteropathy in determining child stunting. However, there are a number of water-nutrition pathways in addition to WASH that would benefit from greater attention in research and discussion. A session aimed at expanding our understanding of water-nutrition linkages was organised during the 2016 Stockholm World Water Week (26 August to 5 September, 2016). The session was organised by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in collaboration with the Center for Development Research (ZEF) at the University of Bonn, USAID, and Texas A&M University.
Business Model Scenarios and Suitability: Smallholder Solar Pump-based Irrigation in Ethiopia
(IWMI, 2018) Otoo, Miriam; Lefore, Nicole; Schmitter, Petra; Barron, Jennie; Gebregziabher, Gebrehaweria
This report outlines a business model approach to assessing the feasibility and for encouraging investment in smallholder solar pump irrigation. It also proposes a new methodology for mapping the suitability of solar energy-based irrigation pumps. The proposed business model framework and the methodology for suitability mapping are applied to Ethiopia as a case study, based on data from existing case studies and reports. A brief analysis outlines the regulatory and institutional context for investment in solar pump irrigation, and the ways in which it both constrains and attempts to support investment. The report identifies and outlines three business model scenarios that present opportunities for investing in smallholder solar pump-based irrigation, which would contribute towards sustainable intensification for food and nutrition security. The business model scenarios are based on the value proposition of supplying water to smallholder farmers for irrigated agricultural production. Analysis of potential gains and benefits suggests that direct purchase of solar pumps by farmers is feasible, and that out-grower schemes and pump supplier options with bundled financing offer promising solutions. The potential constraints that different investors may face in up-scaling the business models are also discussed, particularly within institutional, regulatory and financial contexts. The report provides development actors and investors with evidence-based information on the suitability and sustainability of solar pump irrigation in Ethiopia, as well as suggestions for helping to enable smallholders to invest in individually-owned, smallholder photovoltaic (PV) solar pumps.
Capacity Development Within ILSSI
(Feed the Future, 2017) USAID; The Borlaug Institute; TAMU AgriLife Research; TAMU System; IFPRI; IWMI; ILRI; North Carolina A&T State University; TAMU IDSS; ILSSI
Characterizing shallow groundwater in hillslope aquifers using isotopic signatures: A case study in the Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia
(Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 2021) Setargie, T. A.; Tilahun, S. A.; Schmitter, P.; Moges, M. A.; Gurmessa, S. K.; Tsunekawa, A.; Tsubo, M.; Berihun, M. L.; Fenta, A. A.; Haregeweyn, N.; Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar University, P.O. Box 26, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tottori University, 4-101 Koyama-Minami, Tottori, 680-8553, Japan; The International Water Management Institute, Nile Basin and East Africa Office, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Geology and Geophysics, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Arid Land Research Center, Tottori University, 1390 Hamasaka, Tottori, 680-0001, Japan; International Platform for Dryland Research and Education, Tottori University, 1390 Hamasaka, Tottori, 680-0001, Japan
Study region: Robit-Bata watershed, Upper Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. Study focus: Stable isotopes of water (Oxygen-18 and Deuterium) were used as tracers to estimate the contribution of groundwater in shallow hillslope aquifers to streamflow in the Robit-Bata watershed. To assess the spatiotemporal variability of shallow groundwater and develop a hydrograph separation technique, we collected rainfall, shallow groundwater, and streamflow samples and analyzed their δ18O and δ2H isotopic compositions. The local meteoric water line (LMWL) and local evaporative line (LEL) of the study area were determined and compared with the global meteoric water line (GMWL). A standard unweighted two-component isotope-based hydrograph separation model was used to determine the percentage contribution of shallow groundwater to streamflow. New hydrological insights for the region: The LMWL (δ2H = 8.63·δ18O + 18.2) mostly showed heavy isotopic enrichment relative to GMWL, and the LEL (δ2H = 5.45·δ18O + 6.96) indicated isotopic enrichment compared to Ethiopian lakes. Shallow groundwater responded rapidly to rainfall, with good spatial correlation depending on topographic positions of wells. Pre-event water contributed <50% to peak discharge in July, but >90% when the watershed reached maximum storage. This finding gives insight towards the predominant runoff generation process and has significant implications for sustainable dry season irrigation expansion in the area as the sub-surface flow drains out of the watershed from October onwards reducing water tables in the shallow wells.

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